A review Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

A review - Article Example She sheds light on the uneasy relationship of Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) and Second Language Acquisition (SAL) processes and gives an account of the present state of the art and points towards the new and challenging directions of SAL. Chapelle writes â€Å"The point of departure for this article is the dissimilarity between the theoretical landscape within view of language teaching professionals in 1991 and that of today†. (p.741)The pragmatic goal of computer-assisted language learning (CALL) developers and researchers to create and evaluate learning opportunities and a variety of theoretical approaches to second language acquisition (SLA) which have developed, are alternative beats of the same heart. The multiple theoretical perspectives grouped into four general approaches support this perspective as elucidated by Chapelle who writes: â€Å"Cognitive linguistic (Universal Grammar, autonomous induction theory, and the concept-oriented approach); psycholinguistic (processibility theory, input processing theory, interactionist theory); human learning (associative-cognitive CREED, skill acquisition theory); and language in social context (sociocultural, language socialization, conversation analysis, systemic-functional, complexity theory)† ( p.741). Technological advances and internet revolution and the resultant changes have necessitated modifications of communicative competitive theory and this has proffered a direct challenge to Second Language Acquisition (SLA). This theory lays much emphasis on natural talents and process through which a student undergoes, than in instructed SLA. As per this theory, the learning process goes on without the student being actively conscious of it. The process is just like the elementary command on the mother-tongue exercised by a child even before going to school and that process of self-education goes within the perimeters of the household and immediate

The impact and the influence of multiculturalism in Australia towards Essay

The impact and the influence of multiculturalism in Australia towards Anglo-Indian people - Essay Example It is currently often utilized to refer to the reality that a great deal of citizens in Australia possess, and identify several cultural or racial upbringings. Globalization creates a propagation of hyphenated, multinational characteristics (Lofgren & Sarangi 2009). Undeniably, it is nowadays reasonably conventional to falsify and keep multi-ethnic distinctiveness and adopt both national and intercontinental associations. Nonetheless, the countless dissertations of multiculturalism comprehend these contemporary characteristics in conflicting means. Anglo-Indians, or Eurasians, as they were identified in the nineteenth century, are the â€Å"mixed race† descendants of British colonialism in India and are seen by some to be paradigms of neo-liberal cosmopolitanism (Lofgren & Sarangi 2009). Snubbed by both Indian and British Societies, the experts in the arts, literature and sciences had minimal reason to focus to this very small community until rather lately. This paper aspires to identify the impact and influence of Multiculturalism in Australia towards Anglo-Indian people. It will begin with the reason why sudden interest on these very small community developed. It will also discuss the characteristics of Anglo-Indians in comparison to other races. In addition, it will explore the variety of effects that took place after multiculturalism was introduced in Australia following the demolition of the White Australia policy, particularly its consequences. It also deems to outweigh and tackle the benefits over the disadvantages of Multiculturalism in Australia. Point 1: The rationale behind the abrupt concern in the Anglo-Indian community Obsession of globalization, cosmopolitanism and post-modernism in their own ways Mixed races specifically Anglo-Indians embody qualities of variability, liminality and indemnity Establishes new challenges in formulating theories regarding mixed race subjects The need to address several post-structural critiques of essentialis m and subject centeredness arise The significance of unraveling the policies that shaped Australian population today Point 2: The Anglo-Indian population A minority group People of mixed descent Follows a significantly Western lifestyle They are Christians Speaks English as their primary language Observes European social customs Largely diasporic Never accepted as a member of the Indian and British communities Viewed as sexually promiscuous, alcoholic, indolent and morally corrupt individuals according to Indian popular culture and colonial fiction Recently known as the â€Å"Good Australians† Point 3: The effects of the demolition of the White Australia policy and the promotion of Australian multiculturalism The migration of many mixed races, specifically Anglo-Indians, to Australia The perception of Anglo-Indians as unwanted and unwelcomed non-Europeans by several sectors of the Australian population Anglo-Indians established a threat to Australian unanimity Intermarriage w as discouraged The rise of the desire to have a distinct political depiction Dispute against the National Government regarding encouragement of integration The adoption of the â€Å"non-discriminatory† policy in Australia Cross fertilization enriched the Australian society A more internationalist perspective for Australia The concept that Anglo-Indians are examples of contemporary multiculturalism The promotion of Anglo-Indi

Developing a Brain Computer Interface

Developing a Brain Computer Interface A Seminar Report On â€Å"Brain Computer Interface† Submitted by: Name: Sachin Kumar Roll No: 1214310301 ABSTRACT Brain Computer Interface allows users to communicate with each others by using only brain activities without using any peripheral nerves and muscles of human body. On BCI research the Electroencephalogram (EEG) is used for recording the electrical activity along the scalp. EEG is used to measure the voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic current flows within the neurons of the brain. Hans Berger a German neuroscientist, in 1924 discovered the electrical activity of human brain by using EEG. Hans Berger was the first one who recorded an Alpha Wave from a human brain. In 1970, Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency of USA initiated the program to explore brain communication using EEG. The papers published after this research also mark the first appearance of the expression brain–computer interface in scientific literature. The field of BCI research and development has since focused primarily on neuroprosthetics applications that aim at restoring damaged hearing, sight and movement. Nowadays BCI research is going on in a full swing using non-invasive neural imaginary technique mostly the EEG. The future research on BCI will be dependent mostly in nanotechnology. Research on BCI is radically increased over the last decade. From the last decade the maximum information transfer rates of BCI was 5-25 bits/min but at present BCI’s maximum data transfer rate is 84.7bits/min. 2.INTRODUCTION Brain-computer interface (BCI) is alliance between a brain and a device that enables signals from the brain to direct some external activities, such as control of a cursoror a prosthetic limb. The Brain computing interface enables a direct communications pathway between the brain and the object to be controlled. For example, the signal is transmitted directly from the brain to the mechanism directing the cursor moves, rather than taking the normal ways through the bodys neuromuscular system from the brain to the finger on a mouse then directing the curser. BCIs Research began in the 1970s at the University of California Los Angeles(UCLA) under an allowance from the   National Science Foundation, followed by a contract fromDARPA. Thanks to the remarkable cortical plasticity of the brain, signals from implanted prostheses can, after adaptation, be handled by the brain like natural sensor or effector channels. Animal experimentation for years, the first neuroprosthetic devices implanted in humans appeared in the mid-1990s. Current brain computing interface devices require calculated conscious thought; some future applications, such as prosthetic control, are likely to work without difficulty. Development of electrode devices and/or surgical methods that are minimally invasive is one of the biggest challenges in developing BCI technology . Though Brain Computer Interface (BCI) facilitates direct communication between brain and computer or another device so nowadays it is widely used to enhance the possibility of communication for people with severe neuromuscular disorders, spinal cord injury. Except the medical applications BCI is also used for multimedia applications, which becomes possible by decoding information directly from the user’s brain, as reflected in electroencephalographic (EEG)signals which are recorded non-invasively from user’s scalp. 3.LITERATURE REVIEW Current Trends in Graz Brain–Computer Interface (BCI) Research Pfurtscheller, C. Neuper, C. Guger, W. Harkam, H. Ramoser, Schlà ¶gl, B. Obermaier, and M. Pregenzer The â€Å"Graz Brain–Computer Interface† (BCI) project is aimed at developing a technical system that can support communication possibilities for patients with severe neuromuscular disabilities, who are in particular need of gaining reliable control via non-muscular devices. This BCI system uses oscillatory electroencephalogram (EEG) signals, recorded during specific mental activity, as input and provides a control option by its output. The obtained output signals are presently evaluated for different purposes, such as cursor control, selection of letters or words, or control of prosthesis. Between 1991 and 2000, the Graz BCI project moved through various stages of prototypes. In the first years, mainly EEG patterns during willful limb movement were used for classification of single EEG trials. In these experiments, a cursor was moved e.g. to the left, right or downwards, depending on planning of left hand, right hand or foot movement. Extensive off-line analyses have shown that classification accuracy improved, when the input features, such as electrode positions and frequency bands, were optimized in each subject. Apart from studies in healthy volunteers, BCI experiments were also performed in patients, e.g., with an amputated upper limb. The main parts of any BCI system are: Signal acquisition system: involves the electrodes, which pick up the electrical activity of the brain and the amplifier and analog filters. The feature extractor: converts the brain signals into relevant feature components. At first, the EEG raw signals are filtered by a digital band pass filter. Then, the amplitude samples are squared to obtain the power samples. The power samples are averaged for all trials. Finally, the signal is smoothed by averaging over time samples. The feature translator: classifies the feature components into logical controls. The control interface: converts the logical controls into semantic controls. The device controller: changes the semantic controls to physical device commands, which differ from one device to another depending on the application. Finally, the device commands are executed by the device. The early work of BCI was done by  invasive  methods with electrodes inserted into the brain tissue to read the signals of a single neuron. Although the spatio-temporal resolution was high and the results were highly accurate, there were complications in the long term. These were mostly attributable to the scar tissue formation, which leads to a gradual weakening of the signal and even complete signal loss within months because of the brain tissue reaction towards the foreign objects. A proof of concept experiment was done by Nicolelis and Chapin on monkeys to control a robotic arm in real time using the invasive method. Recently, less invasive methods have been used by applying an array of electrodes in the subdural space over the cortex to record the Electrocorticogram (ECoG) signals. It has been found that ordinary Electroencephalogram pickup signals are averaged over several EEG signal bands (Hz) square inches, whereas ECoG electrodes can measure the electrical activity of brain cells over a much smaller area, thereby providing much higher spatial resolution and a higher signal to noise ratio because of the thinner barrier tissue between the electrodes and the brain cells. The superior ability to record the gamma band signals of the brain tissue is another important advantage of this type of BCI system. Gamma rhythms (30-200 Hz) are produced by cells with higher oscillations, which are not easy to record by ordinary EEGs. The human skull is a thick filter, which blurs the EEG signals, especially the higher frequency bands (i.e. gamma band). Noninvasive  techniques were demonstrated mostly by electroencephalographs (EEG). Others used functional Hz, Magneto-Resonance Imaging (fMRI), Positron Electron Tomography (PET), Magneto encephalography (MEG) and Single Photon Emission Computed Tomography There (SPECT). EEGs have the advantage of higher temporal resolution, reaching a few milliseconds and are relatively low cost. Recent EEG systems have better spatiotemporal resolution of up to 256 electrodes over the total area of the scalp. Nevertheless, it cannot record from the deep parts of the brain. This is the main reason why the multimillion dollar fMRI systems are still the preferred method for the functional study of the brain. However, EEG systems are still the best candidate for BCI systems spatial as they are easy to use, portable and cheap. The main problems that reduce the reliability and accuracy of BCI and which prevent this technology from being clinically useful, are the sensory interfacing problems and the translation algorithm problems. In order to make a clinically useful BCI the accuracy of the detection of intention needs to be very high and certainly much higher than the currently achieved accuracy with different types of BCI. The intermediate compromise between accuracy and safety is the ECoG based BCI, which has shown considerable promise. The sensory arrays of electrodes are less invasive and provide comparable accuracy and high spatial resolution compared to the implanted type. The ECoG based BCI needs much less training than the EEG based BCI and researchers have shown that highly accurate and fast response. 4.TECHNICAL DETAILS REASON BEHIND WORKING: The reason a BCI works at all is because of the way our brains function. Our brains are filled with  neurons, individual nerve cells connected to one another by dendrites and axons. Every time we think, move, feel or remember something, our neurons are at work. That work is carried out by small electric signals that zip from neuron to neuron as fast as 250 mph. The signals are generated by differences in electric potential carried by ions on the membrane of each neuron. Although the paths the signals take are insulated by something called myelin, some of the electric signal escapes. Scientists can detect those signals, interpret what they mean and use them to direct a device of some kind. It can also work the other way around. For example, researchers could figure out what signals are sent to the brain by the optic nerve when someone sees the color red. They could rig a camera that would send those exact signals into someones brain whenever the camera saw red, allowing a blind person to see without eyes. BCI INPUT AND OUTPUT: One of the biggest challenges facing brain-computer interface researchers today is the basic mechanics of the interface itself. The easiest and least invasive method is a set of electrodes a device known as an  electroencephalograph(EEG) attached to the scalp. The electrodes can read brain signals. However, the skull blocks a lot of the electrical signal, and it distorts what does get through. To get a higher-resolution signal, scientists can implant electrodes directly into the gray matter of the brain itself, or on the surface of the brain, beneath the skull. This allows for much more direct reception of electric signals and allows electrode placement in the specific area of the brain where the appropriate signals are generated. This approach has many problems, however. It requires invasive surgery to implant the electrodes, and devices left in the brain long-term tend to cause the formation of scar tissue in the gray matter. This scar tissue ultimately blocks signals. Regardless of the location of the electrodes, the basic mechanism is the same: The electrodes measure minute differences in the voltage between neurons. The signal is then amplified and filtered. In current BCI systems, it is then interpreted by a computer program, although you might be familiar with older analogue encephalographs, which displayed the signals via pens that automatically wrote out the patterns on a continuous sheet of paper. In the case of a sensory input BCI, the function happens in reverse. A computer converts a signal, such as one from a video camera, into the voltages necessary to trigger neurons. The signals are sent to an implant in the proper area of the brain, and if everything works correctly, the neurons fire and the subject receive a visual image corresponding to what the camera sees. SENSORY INPUT: The most common and oldest way to use a BCI is a cochlear implant. For the average person, sound waves enter the ear and pass through several tiny organs that eventually pass the vibrations on to the auditory nerves in the form of electric signals. If the mechanism of the ear is severely damaged, that person will be unable to hear anything. However, the auditory nerves may be functioning perfectly well. They just arent receiving any signals. A cochlear implant bypasses the non functioning part of the ear, processes the sound waves into electric signals and passes them via electrodes right to the auditory nerves. The result: A previously deaf person can now hear. He might not hear perfectly, but it allows him to understand conversations. The processing of visual information by the brain is much more complex than that of audio information, so artificial eye development isnt as advanced. Still, the principle is the same. Electrodes are implanted in or near the visual cortex, the area of the brain that processes visual information from the retinas. A pair of glasses holding small cameras is connected to a computer and, in turn, to the implants. After a training period similar to the one used for remote thought-controlled movement, the subject can see. Again, the vision isnt perfect, but refinements in technology have improved it tremendously since it was first attempted in the 1970s. Jens Naumann was the recipient of a second-generation implant. He was completely blind, but now he can navigate New York Citys subways by himself and even drive a car around a parking lot. In terms of science fiction becoming reality, this process gets very close. The terminals that connect the camera glasses to the electrodes in Naumanns b rain are similar to those used to connect the VISOR (Visual Instrument and Sensory Organ) worn by blind engineering officer Geordi La Forge in the Star Trek: The Next Generation TVshow and films, and theyre both essentially the same technology. However, Naumann isnt able to see invisible portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Applications: Applications of BCI are described as follows: Neurogaming: Currently, there is a new field of gaming called Neurogaming, which uses non-invasive BCI in order to improve gameplay so that users can interact with a console without the use of a traditional controller. Some Neurogaming software use a players brain waves, heart rate, expressions, pupil dilation, and even emotions to complete tasks or effect the mood of the game. For example, game developers at Emotiv have created non-invasive BCI that will determine the mood of a player and adjust music or scenery accordingly. This gaming experience will introduce a real-time experience in gaming and will introduce the ability to control a video game by thought. Prosthesis control: Non-invasive BCIs have also been applied to enable brain-control of prosthetic upper and lower extremity devices in people with paralysis. For example, Gert Pfurtscheller of Graz University of Technology and colleagues demonstrated a BCI-controlled functional electrical stimulation system to restore upper extremity movements in a person with tetraplegia due to spinal cord injury. Between 2012 and 2013, researchers at the University of California, Irvine demonstrated for the first time that it is possible to use BCI technology to restore brain-controlled walking after spinal cord injury. Synthetic telepathy/silent communication: In a $6.3 million Army initiative to invent devices for telepathic communication, Gerwin Schalk, underwritten in a $2.2 million grant, found that it is possible to use ECoG signals to discriminate the vowels and consonants embedded in spoken and in imagined words. The results shed light on the distinct mechanisms associated with production of vowels and consonants, and could provide the basis for brain-based communication using imagined speech. On February 27, 2013Duke University researchers successfully connected the brains of two rats with electronic interfaces that allowed them to directly share information, in the first-ever direct brain-to-brain interface. MEG and MRI: Magnetoencephalography (MEG) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) have both been used successfully as non-invasive BCIs. In a widely reported experiment, fMRI allowed two users being scanned to play Pongin real-time by altering their haemodynamic response or brain blood flow through biofeedback techniques. fMRI measurements of haemodynamic responses in real time have also been used to control robot arms with a seven second delay between thought and movement. Neural Internet: Access to the internet opens a myriad of opportunities for those with severe disabilities, including shopping, entertainment, education, and possibly even employment. Neural control users cannot control a cursor with a great degree of precision, so, therefore, the challenge of adapting a web browser for neural control is in making links—which are spatially organized—accessible. The University of Tuebingen developed a web browser controller to be used with their thought translation device, but it requires the user to select from an alphabetized list of links, causing problems if the link names are identical. They have developed a neurally controlled web browser that serializes the spatial internet interface and allows logical control of a web application. BrainTrainer—Subject Training: The BrainTrainer project researches the most effective ways of teaching a person the brain-signal control needed to interact with a device. The BrainTrainer toolset allows researchers to compose trials by providing simple tasks, such as targeting, navigation, selection, and timing, that can be combined to produce an appropriate-level task for a particular subject.

An Unlikely Holiday Tradition :: A Christmas Story Essays

An Unlikely Holiday Tradition â€Å"People look forward to this,† Ward said. â€Å"It’s become a Christmas hit for us. People just keep their TV’s on.† Walter Ward is a spokesperson for the television station TNT. In 1998, TNT called it a â€Å"Ralphie marathon.† According to Ward, it was only a â€Å"stunt† but, when TNT saw how much the viewers liked it, it became a sort of tradition. Each year TNT runs a twenty-four hour marathon of the movie, A Christmas Story. That’s seventeen times from seven o’clock on Christmas Eve until seven o’clock on Christmas Day. The question remaining is, â€Å"how has A Christmas Story become a holiday television tradition?† A Christmas Story is a â€Å"low budget movie about a sort-of-dysfunctional family.† The movie took place in a small Indiana town in the 1940’s and follows a boy’s quest for a weapon, â€Å"that would now be illegal at any school† (Bryant). Ralphie Parker wanted just one thing for Christmas that year, â€Å"an official Red Ryder, carbine action, two-hundred shot range model air rifle† (Shepherd). His mission was to convince his parents, his teacher and even Santa that it was the perfect Christmas gift for a nine year old boy. To Ralphie’s dismay, they all disagreed and thought that a football would be a much better Christmas present and responded with, â€Å"You’ll shoot your eye out!† The movie was based on the novel written by Jean Shepherd called In God We Trust, All Others Pay Cash. It was a book based upon the opinion that, â€Å"childhood seems good in retrospect because we are not yet aware of the basic truth : that we’re all losers, that we die and death is a defeat† (Shepherd). Considering the circumstances of the movie, it is baffling that a Christmas movie which seems to be filled with dysfunction has become such an annual Christmas tradition. And tradition it is. In my family, A Christmas Story is on all throughout the day. Each year there is a battle at my grandparent’s house between the children and parents. The children cannot seem to pull themselves away from the television, while the parents beg for the children to join them at the table for Christmas dinner. In my opinion watching the movie over and over again never seems to get old.

Dar es Salaam Essay

Education according to Nyerere (1967), refers to the transmission from one generation to the next the accumulated wisdom and knowledge of the society and to prepare young people for their future membership of the society and their active participation in its development. In other way it can be defined as a process of teaching, training and learning especially in schools or colleges to improve knowledge and develop skills. (Oxford Advanced learners Dictionary, 6th Edition). Education is the process of acquiring and developing desirable knowledge, specific skills, positive attitudes and values. (Thungu, J. et al, 2010) History is the study of the records of all past human experiences, as defined by a number of historians. It is concerned with political, social, economic, scientific, technological and cultural which have shaped and given birth to mankind. History of education can be defined as the study of the past development of educational systems, theories and institutions within the general historical framework of political, social, economic, scientific, technological and cultural change. (Thungu, J.et al, 2010) REASONS WHY STUDENTS’ TEACHRERS’ STUDY HISTORY OF EDUCATION First of all, studying history of education helps teachers to be in improving quality of education and strengthen professional competence. Studying history of education prepares teachers to explore and critically examine alternatives education theories, practices and culture so as to objectively determine what is acceptable. (Thungu, J. et al, 2010) Likewise, past experience help teachers to be to influence current decisions today. History of education helps teachers to be to improve decision making and judgment. Through it both good and bad examples of decision are given. History of education offers the opportunity from past example of the others through which formulation of policies to suit the current education systems are made. Moreover, helps to draw comparison of different educational ideas and to show the development of various educational theories and practices in educational context. Through comparison one is able to show the development of a particular theory and practice in historical context and demonstrates a particular condition out, which such a theory arose, the specific function that a practice was intended to serve. (Thungu, J, et al, 2010) History of education provides the opportunity to see how society has changed over centuries. It provides a better understanding of people and culture. Tanzania in particular, education system has been changing from time to time as for instance objectives of indigenous education are different from the post colonial era. Through it, teacher to be can be able to show the difference objectives of education basing on different generation. (http//:www. wikipedia. history of education/) Helps to cultivate the art of self expression, communication, inquiry, objective thinking and ability to judge on the side of the teachers to be. It enables in the developing the attitude of mind that distinguish the educated person, the habit of skepticism and criticism of thinking with perspective and objective of judging what is good or bad, as well as weighing the pros and cons. (Thungu, J. et al. 2010) Studying history of education enables student- teachers in choosing suitable methods and strategies when in classroom environment or context. Student-teachers to be in good position to avoid static methods of teaching and learning, at the same time theory improve the tradition methods to match with current situation. (http//:www. wikipedia. history of education/) Also, it exposes the student-teachers to other discipline such as history, Christian religion education, oral literature, sociology and psychology. This helps in enriching the analysis of important educational ideas. (Thungu, J. et al, 2010) It enables student-teachers in integrating both theoretical and practical education. Understanding the context of historical events engender the spirit of realism. Through various education theories creates or build good basis in implementation of curriculum. (Thungu, J. et al 2010) Then, it helps in establishing the sound knowledge and skills set in which teachers will be able to build as they are exposed to different life experiences. For instance, having studied a history of  education in a certain society, a student-teacher will be in a good position to handle the students of that society effectively and efficiently. (http//:www. wikipedia. history of education/) Studying history of education helps student-teachers to translate information and judgment, experience and wisdom into relevant knowledge that a student can understand, retain and pass to others. Generally, Studying history of education for the teachers to be is of great importance to their prospects of teaching. History of education is part and parcel of the teaching profession, if a teacher wants to be effective and efficient. REFERENCES http//:www. wikipedia. history of education/ 13th, Jan, 2011; 11:08 am Ishumi, A. G. M. , (1978), Education and Development, Dar es Salaam: National Printing Company Limited. Lema, E. et al (2004), Nyerere on Education, Dar es Salaam: Oxford University Press Mushi, A. K. (2009), History and Development of Education in Tanzania, Dar es Salaam: Dar es Salaam University Press Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 6th edition, (2000). Thungu, J. et al (2010), Mastering PTE Education, Nairobi: Oxford University Press

Accounting Essays – BT Cashflow Changes

BT Cashflow Changes.BT Group ( BT ) is the taking UK company supplying landline telecommunication services and equipment. It besides had the nomadic telecommunication concern which was later sold as MMO2. After the sale of nomadic concern, BT ‘s profile has now changed from a growing company to a mature hard currency bring forthing company. A )Fiscal public presentationThe most common nonsubjective appraisal of the fiscal public presentation of a house is the return it generates on its assets and the measure and quality of the returns. Measure is measured by the absolute and per centum alteration in entire net incomes. The net income and loss history of an administration and its analysis are the premier and first indexs of a house ‘s fiscal public presentation. The latest one-year consequences of BT is for the period stoping 31 March 2005. Appendix I shows the sum-up of cardinal net income and loss figures over the last three old ages. BT ‘s turnover and net income after revenue enhancement in 2005 have increased as compared to 2004 but are still lower than those in 2003. The turnover has declined by 5.7 % merely whereas net income after revenue enhancement has declined by 32.7 % over the two twelvemonth period. This shows that the concern has really low variable costs which is in line with the heavy fixed cost investings usually made by telecommunication companies in set uping their webs and subsequent really low variable costs in transporting informations. While turnover increased in 2005, runing net incomes have declined. This indicates that the concern is confronting some pricing force per unit areas or is passing more on advertizement as the operating net income declined by 0.5 % merely. BT ‘s 2005 net income after revenue enhancement was & A ; lb ; 1,820m and was well higher than & A ; lb ; 1,406m. Though the absolute net income is really high figure compared to most of the concerns and indicates that the company is in strong fiscal place, it besides shows that BT has high fiscal purchase. The company paid a important high involvement and if grosss and operating borders come under more force per unit area, it could hold problem paying involvement costs. BT is cognizant of this issue and has focused on cut downing its net debt. After confronting tough times in early 2000s, it has sold many old investings to raise money for refunding debt. BT ‘s portion monetary value rose after it announced its strategic determination to cut down net debt by raising money through divestments. The net involvement payments have declined from & A ; lb ; 1,439m in 2003 to & A ; lb ; 801m in 2005. Not merely that, the net involvement payment has declined from 49.5 % of operating net income to 29.0 % from 2003 to 2005. The decrease in net involvement as a per centum of operating net income is an of import betterment as it gives investors comfort that even if operating borders come under force per unit area, the company would still be able to run into its involvement liabilities. One speedy manner to analyze a company ‘s public presentation is to look at the net incomes per portion form. The net incomes per portion had besides a alteration form similar to that of net income after revenue enhancement. It foremost decreased from 31.4p in 2003 to 16.4p in 2004 before increasing to 21.4p in 2005. The 2005 addition in net incomes per portion highlights the betterment in public presentation. Though the net incomes did lessening in 2004, BT kept on increasing entire dividend paid to stockholders. This shows the direction ‘s religion in concern traveling frontward and its ability to run into higher dividend outlooks in future. The returns generated on assets is measured by Return on Capital employed ( ROCE ) . Appendix II shows the computation of ROCE for BT. BT had a healthy ROCE of 19.0 % and 20.7 % in 2004 and 2005. The quality of returns is measured by their consistence and by the spread of net incomes, i.e. , the per centum of net incomes being generated from different divisions and locations. The less trust of net incomes on any one division and/or location means the company is in better form to defy downswings in its markets. None of BT ‘s concern contributed more than 50 % in its turnover in the twelvemonth ended 31 March 2005 ( BT, 2005 ) . This indicates that BT Group is moderately good protected from the diminutions in a concern line. The state of affairs is somewhat different if we look at the operating net incomes where BT Wholesale division contributes more than 50 % of net runing net incomes. Any more border force per unit areas in this concern could cut down future net incomes. Most of BT ‘s net incomes originate from UK and hence it net incomes are susceptible to alterations in UK economic system. Fiscal placeThe fiscal place of a company covers its fiscal construction, its assets and liabilities, its liquidness and hazard direction attack ( Accounting Standards 2004/2005 ) . Appendix III gives the high spots of BT Group ‘s balance sheet from 2004 to 2005. The entire fixed assets have increased by & A ; lb ; 639m in the last twelvemonth. While entire fixed assets have increased, the entire current assets have decreased by & A ; lb ; 254m, so entire assets have increased by & A ; lb ; 385m. The lower addition in entire assets as compared to increase in fixed assets is chiefly due to diminish in hard currency and investings. The major alteration in fiscal construction has occurred on the liabilities side. The entire current liabilities have gone up by & A ; lb ; 3,938m due to increase in current loans and adoptions of & A ; lb ; 3,227m. This shows that BT is financing much more of its assets from current adoptions. The monolithic addition in current loans and adoptions has reversed the net current assets ( liabilities ) place. BT had net current assets of & A ; lb ; 2,027m in 2004 and had net current liabilities of & A ; lb ; 2,165m in 2005, a net lessening in current assets of & A ; lb ; 4,192m. While the current liabilities have increased, the long term creditors have decreased by & A ; lb ; 4,335m. If we merely look at long-run creditors, the decrease is impressive and it gives more assurance to the investors that company is in better fiscal place now. But when we combine the lessening in long term creditors with the addition in current liabilities, the net alteration is really less. And the fact that alterations in current liabilities is chiefly due to borrowing alternatively of addition in trade creditors means that the funding of assets has simply shifted from long term adoptions to short term adoptions. The current assets to current liabilities ratio has declined from 1.24 to 0.83 in the last one twelvemonth, a mark of concern in footings of liquidness particularly when the addition in liabilities is non chiefly due to higher trade creditors. Debt to equity ratio indicates the funding of assets. BT had entire debt of & A ; lb ; 13,697m in 2004 and the corresponding figure for 2005 was & A ; lb ; 12,589m, a lessening of & A ; lb ; 1,108m. If we now exclude hard currency and short term investings from entire debt, BT ‘s net debt was & A ; lb ; 8,425m and & A ; lb ; 7,786m in 2004 and 2005 severally. The net debt to book value of equity ratio declined from 2.75 in 2004 to 2.02 in 2005. This means that debt fundss about twice assets as being financed by equity. Higher sum of debt consequences in lower leaden mean cost of capital as debt is cheaper equity. But as BT reduces more debt, its leaden mean cost of capital will increase. The addition would be partly offset by lower cost of equity due to take down opportunities of bankruptcy. Hazard of bankruptcy is measured by involvement screen ratio which is defined as the ratio of hard currency available for involvement payments to net involvement. Appendix IV shows the EBITDA computation and involvement screen ratio. The involvement screen ratio has increased from 6.1 in 2004 to 7.0 in 2005. The healthy involvement screen ratio shows that BT has farther reduced the hazard of bankruptcy and is in better fiscal place now. The debt degree is now really much within manageable degrees and is more like a hard currency rich mature company. Companies usually tend to follow certain dividend tendency to signal market of their appraisal of future net incomes. Dividend declaration is besides portion of hazard direction as it is based on direction ‘s appraisal of future hard currency coevals and outgo outlooks. The hiking in dividend in 2004 and 2005 inspite of diminution in net incomes in 2004 shows the direction appraisal of future low hazards to hard currency flows. Fiscal AdaptabilityAn entity ‘s fiscal adaptability is its ability to take effectual action to change the sum and timing of its hard currency flows so that it can react to unexpected demands or chances ( Accounting Standards 2004/2005, page 26 ) . Appendix V shows the chief elements of amalgamate hard currency flow statement of BT Group. BT Group is bring forthing high sums of hard currency influx from operating activities. During the twelvemonth ended 31 March 2005, the company generated & A ; lb ; 5,900m of net hard currency from operating activities. BT is in telecommunication concern which demands comparatively high degree of absolute investings. It spent & A ; lb ; 2,408m on capital outgo during the twelvemonth ended 31 March 2005. Even if we believe that all of capital outgo was required under normal operations, BT was still left with & A ; lb ; 2,282m of excess hard currency in 2005. As we can see from the Appendix III that BT has now focused on refund of loans. During the last three old ages, the company has reduced adoptions by & A ; lb ; 7,395m. Though BT is able to bring forth important sum of hard currency before disposals but that was non plenty in 2003 and 2004 to refund loans. The company so sold some of its investings to bring forth hard currency for loan refunds. BT besides pays a important sum of dividend to its stockholders. So if its cyberspace hard currency from operations do diminish in future, it has still some buffer in footings of dividend payments to take attention of loan refunds. B )The aim of fiscal statement is to supply information about the coverage entity ‘s fiscal public presentation and fiscal place that is utile to a broad scope of users for measuring the stewardship of the entity ‘s direction and for doing economic determinations ( Accounting Standards, 2004, page 22 ) . The conformity of an entity ‘s fiscal studies with UK ‘s Accounting Standards can be gauged over two chief countries – content and format. Content is of import to give true and right image of a house ‘s fiscal public presentation and place. Different users need different information. Fiscal statements are used by investors to establish their investing determination. So it is of import that fiscal statements have the right content to assist accomplish this end. It is besides of import to hold right format of presentation. Investors are more likely to experience comfy if they see familiar presentation manner and can so measure the company easy. We will look at the content and major fiscal statements to see whether they comply with UK Accounting Standards. We will so besides at few extra notes to fiscal statements to see whether they are besides in line with true and just rule and give the readers a clear image of the entity. First of all we compare net income and loss statement with FRS 3 ‘Reporting fiscal public presentation ‘ . BT ‘s amalgamate net income and loss statement clearly shows the entire turnover and portion from joint venture and associates, and in making so gives more lucidity of its gaining base. The fiscal statement format is similar to the illustration formats shown in Accounting Standards 2004/2005. BT ‘s 2005 Annual Report nevertheless does n't demo portion of turnover and net incomes from discounted operations ( BT, 2005 ) . It is because BT did n't sell any concern in 2005. If we look at the 2002 Annual Report ( BT, 2002 ) , it shows the turnover and net incomes from discounted operations besides. The fiscal statement besides has statement of entire recognized additions and losingss in line with FRS 3 patterns. So the histories run into net income and loss statement UK Accounting Standards in footings of both content and format. We now compare BT ‘s hard currency flow statement with the format prescribed in FRS 1 ‘Cash flow statements ‘ . BT ‘s hard currency flow statement has non merely got all the headers but they are besides in the same order as mentioned in FRS 1. BT study besides gives sub-categories under the major headers and hence is a echt attempt to educate investors every bit much as possible on the coevals and usage of hard currency flows. BT hard currency flow statement uses the format prescribed for the ‘Group ‘ histories. The notes to fiscal statement besides has detailed describing on rapprochement of operating net income to run hard currency flows, analysis of net debt, acquisition and disposals in line with formats for the ‘Group ‘ histories. The following subdivision we analyse is on segmental coverage and look into its comparison with SSAP 25 ‘Segmental Reporting ‘ . SSAP 25 says that a populace limited company should supply segmental analysis on lines of concern category and geographical location. The notes to fiscal statement subdivision in the 2005 Annual Report has a subdivision on segmental coverage wherein BT shows the turnover, runing profit/ ( loss ) and net assets/ ( liabilities ) of different concern lines. It besides provides the above informations based on the geographical location of contrary coevals. The above meets SSAP 25 demands and besides helps investors make a better judgement of hazards faced by BT. BT is in telecommunication concern where engineering alteration is rapid. BT has acquired many companies in recent old ages to maintain gait with the technological developments. So it is of import to analyze the acquisition policies and revelations are in line with the UK Accounting Standards. FRS 6 ‘Acquisitions and Mergers ‘ and FRS 7 ‘Fair values in acquisition accounting ‘ govern the acquisition accounting policies. BT ‘s one-year study under ‘Notes to fiscal statements ‘ gives elaborate revelation of entire and just value of the acquisitions made by it. BT ‘s fiscal statements non merely give the book and just value of acquisitions but besides a elaborate account of them for each acquisition. The clear and easy to understand format of fiscal statements and the deepness of information in them signals that BT non merely merely make the lower limit to run into UK Accounting Standards but besides follows them in true spirit. Appendix I – Highlight of BT Group ‘s net income and loss histories ( Beginning: BT Annual Report and Form 20-F ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.btplc.com/Sharesandperformance/Howwehavedone/Financialreports/Annualreports/AnnualReports.htm ) Appendix II – ROCE of BT Group ( Beginning: BT Annual Report and Form 20-F ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.btplc.com/Sharesandperformance/Howwehavedone/Financialreports/Annualreports/AnnualReports.htm ) Appendix III – Highlight of BT Group ‘s balance sheet ( Beginning: BT Annual Report and Form 20-F ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.btplc.com/Sharesandperformance/Howwehavedone/Financialreports/Annualreports/AnnualReports.htm ) Appendix IV – Interest screen ratio ( Beginning: BT Annual Report and Form 20-F ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.btplc.com/Sharesandperformance/Howwehavedone/Financialreports/Annualreports/AnnualReports.htm ) Appendix V – Highlight of BT Group ‘s hard currency flow statements ( Beginning: BT Annual Report and Form 20-F ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.btplc.com/Sharesandperformance/Howwehavedone/Financialreports/Annualreports/AnnualReports.htm ) Bibliography and mentions Accounting Standards 2004/2005 – Extant at 30 April 2004 ( 2004 ) ; Wolters Kluwer ( UK ) Limited. BT ( 2005 ) ; BT Annual Report and Form 20-F for the twelvemonth ended 31 March 2005 ; hypertext transfer protocol: //www.btplc.com/Sharesandperformance/Howwehavedone/ Financialreports/Annualreports/AnnualReports.htm BT ( 2002 ) ; BT Annual Report and Form 20-F for the twelvemonth ended 31 March 2002 ;hypertext transfer protocol: //www.btplc.com/Sharesandperformance/Howwehavedone/Financialreports/Annualreports/Annualreportsarchive.htm